Types of eaters herbivores carnivores omnivores Steps of digestion `1` `2` `3` `4` 1: ingestion 2: digestion 3: absorption 4: elimination Process of breaking down food molecules into small enough to process digestion Accessory glands in digestive system salivary glands pancreas liver gallbladder Name of mouth oral cavity Enzyme in saliva to break down glucose polymers salivary amylase What in saliva protects lining of digestive system mucus Thing to neutralize acid in saliva buffer Shape that tongue shapes food into for swallowing bolus Junction between esophagus and trachea pharynx Windpipe name trachea Valves that regulate movement between compartments sphincter What is food pushed by peristalsis Mixture of gastric juice and food chyme What do dots in inside of stomach lead to gastric gland Cells in gastric gland mucous cell chief cell parietal cell What is area within stomach called lumen What does chief cell secrete pepsinogen What do parietal cells produc HCl What type of enzyme is pepsin protease Types of digestion: `stomach`, `intestines` stomach: mechanical intestines: chemical First portion of small intestine duodenum What does pancreas secrete to neutralize chyme in intestine bicarbonate Protease produced by pancreas into intestine trypsin What helps with digestion of fats in intestines bile Bile is made in `made` and concentrated in `concentrated` made: liver concentrated: gallbladder Thing on small intestine that increase surface area for nutrient absorption villi Vein that carries blood from intestines to liver and then to heart hepatic portal vein When fatty acids and glycerol recombined in cell and coated with phospholipids, cholestorol, etc. what is made (to be water soluble) chylomicrons Where are chylomicrons transported into lacteal What intestine comes first small What is connected to the end of the large intestine colon cecum What does cecum do fermentation Organ on end of cecum appendix Layers of intestine: `1`, made of `a`, `2`, with `2 stuff`, `3`, `4` 1: mucosa a: epithelial 2: submucosa 2 stuff: veins 3: muscularis propria 4: serosa System of blood cardiovascular system Main types of blood vessels arteries veins capillaries Site of exchange between blood and tissue capillary bed What do capillaries converge into venules What do venules converge into veins In heart blood enters through `entry` and exits through `exit` entry: atria exit: ventricle Circulation where right side pumps oxygen poor and left side pumps oxygen rich double circulation Where does oxygen rich blood from lungs enter pulmonary veins Where does oxygen rich blood get pumped into aorta How does aorta connect to heart coronary arteries Vein where blood returns to heart vena cava Which vena cava is legs inferior One complete sequence of heart cardiac cycle `contraction` phase, `relaxation` phase contraction: systole relaxation: diastole Valves that separate atrium and ventrical AV Valve Valves that control blood flow to aorta and pulmonary artery semilunar Thing that sets rhythm of heart sinoatrial node Outer layer of veins and arteries made of what connective tissue Inner layer of veins and arteries smooth muscle elastic fibers When is arterial pressure highest systole Where is pressure and velocity lower veins Constriction of smooth muscle in arteries vasoconstriction Inducer of vasoconstriction endothelin Thing stopping backflow from gravity and stuff in veins valves Fluid that leaks from tissue into capillaries lymph Organs that filter lymph lymph nodes Hardening of arteries by fatty deposits and cholestorol artherosclerosis Thing that causes cholestorol to go in arteries LDL Name for high blood pressure hypertension Intersection of food and air pharynx Top of windpipe larynx Name for windpipe trachea Where does air go after trachea bronchi bronchioles Where is gas exchanged alveoli What is used to move particles from lungs into esophagus cilia mucus What coats alveoli surfactants `cell` makes up alveoli, type `a` makes surfactants and type `b` makes up wall of lungs cell: pneumocyte a: II b: I Type of breathing in mammals negative pressure breathing Volume of air breathed in tidal volume Thing that regulates breathing medulla What side of the heart is oxygen poor right Top part that receives blood atrium Bottom part that sends blood ventricle Cardiac cycle: `1` (atrium closed, ventricle open) `2` (atrium open, ventricle closed) `3` (both open) 1: swish 2: swish 3: whoosh What is on the left (artery or vein) artery What is inside of lung called thoracic cavity What does CO2 make in blood that is used to see if you need to breathe bicarbonate Parts of ECG: `A`, `between A and B, horizontal`, `between A and B, going down`, `spike in B` A: SA Node between A and B, horizontal: AV Node between A and B, going down: Bundle branches spike in B: Ventricles Extensions for receiving signals in neuron dendrite Long extension for transmitting on neuron axon Base of axon where signal generated axon hillock Branched end of axon synapse Chemical messenger at end of synapse neurotransmitter Membrane potential of neuron not sending signal resting potential Where is concentration of potassium highest inside cell Channel used to respond to stimuli in neuron voltage-gated ion channel Increase in magnitude of membrane potential hyperpolarization Opposite of hyperpolarization depolarization Change in polarization where magnitude of change varies with distance graded potential If depolarization shifts enough it results in what massive change (spike) action potential Period after action potential refractory period Gaps in myelin sheath where gated Na+ is, in non myelinated axons this is the whole thing nodes of Ranvier How action potential jumps between nodes of Ranvier when myelinated saltatory conduction What is bound in synapse ligand-gated ion channel Common neurotransmitter in synapse acteylcholine Resting potential of neuron (+/- 10 mV of this) -70mV What process does neurotransmitter use exocytosis What percent of blood is plasma 55 What are red blood cells called Erythrocytes What are white blood cells called Leukocytes Fragments of cell involved in clotting platelets How many molecules of oxygen can hemoglobin hold 4 Formation of solid clot from liquid blood coagulation `enzyme` is activated by stuff released by platelets, which makes `type` clot enzyme: thrombin type: fibrin What type of immunity do all animals have innate immunity What type of immunity do vertebrates have adaptive immunity What is it called where antibodies defend against pathogens humoral response Primary thing in barrier defense (innate), one that traps pathogens mucus skin Cellular innate defense is done by what phagocytes natural killer cells Innate proteins that stop viruses from replicating and help phagocytes interferons Thing that is released in inflammatory response to make capillaries more dilated so immune cells can go into tissue histamine What do macrophages release that activates immunes response cytokines Condition caused by overwhelming immune response septic shock What type of cell does secondary specific response lymphocytes Lymphocytes that mature in `place` above heart are called `letter` cells place: thymus letter: T Lymphocytes that mature in bone marrow are called what letter B Things that get response from B and T cell antigen B cell has two of each of these things heavy chains light chains What 2 names are for things B cells release after antigen receptor binds to antigen antibody immunoglobin What are T-cell receptors alpha beta Tip of chains in B and T cells is `letter`, rest of it is `letter2` letter: V letter2: C `Molecule` in macrophages binds to antigens and brings them to the surface of the cell in `process` Molecule: MHC process: antigen presentation Short term B cells that fight current antigen plasma cells Long term cell that can bring immune response if this happens again memory cell First time immune system responds is what primary immune response When memory cells are present what happens secondary immune response Cell that binds to MHC and triggers response helper T cell MHC-1 binds to `letter1`, MHC-2 binds to `letter2` letter1: T letter2: B What does T cell do to cells with antibody trigger apoptosis with proteins Process of producing lots of identical B cells or T cells clonal selection Process where immune antibodies given to nonimmune animals (like sheep immune to venom given to person with snake bite) artifical passive immunization How long does primary immune response take to make antibodies 1 week What does HIV attack lymphocytes Smaller phages in blood stream neutrophils What do mast cells release histamine In retrovirus it has `a` which becomes `b` in host cell which goes into `c` a: rna b: dna c: host genome How are RNA viruses copied RNA polymerase What do retroviruses have DNA for enzyme reverse transcripase System with hormones endocrine system Thing that controls brain hormones hypothalamus Example of simple endocrine pathway pH in duodenum Gland in hypothalamus pituitary gland `a` part of pituitary stores hormones, while `b` synthesizes a: posterior b: anterior When thryoxin goes low, path goes from `1` to `2` to `3` 1: hypothalamus 2: anterior pituitary 3: thyroid hormone that reduces stomach blood, increases sugar in blood, and increases blood to muscles (has alpha and beta receptors) epinepherine Hormone that regulates sleep melatonin Phases of homeostasis response: `1`, `2`, `3` 1: stimulus 2: sensor 3: response Processes for heat exchange radiation evaporation conduction convection What increases heat loss vasodilation Division of nervous system for digestion enteric Hormones for glucose levels insulin glucagon Hormone that triggers feeling of hunger before meals ghrelin Hormone created by fat that reduces appetite leptin Organs that produce gametes gonads Hormones that regulate sex hormones FSH LH What type of hormone is testosterone androgen What is melatonin secreted by pineal gland What makes lining of uterus build up estradiol What spikes during ovulation FSH LH Stages of menstrual cycle: `1`, `2`, `3` 1: menstrual 2: proliferative 3: secretory What is secreted by hypothalamus to make FSH and LH GnRH Where are adrenal glands kidneys What does water retention in kidneys antidurietic hormone `type` cell in pancreas releases insulin, `type2` releases glucagon type: beta type2: alpha