Segment of DNA located along chromosome, heritable and influences characteristics Gene Changes in genetic material mutation Change in one nucleotide Point mutation Mutation where nucleotide replaced substitution Mutation in which nothing happens silent Mutation in which one amino acid changed missense Mutation in which amino acid changed to stop codon nonsense mutation Addition of nucleotide insertion Removal of nucleotide deletion Insertion/deletion mutation altering the rest of the protein frameshift Thing that causes mutations mutagen State where both copies are the same (for sickle cell it leads to disease) homozygous State where different copies (leads to advantage for sickle cell against malaria) heterozygous Different version of a gene, couple bases different allele Position of gene on chromosome locus Study of all genetic info genomics Study of all protein info proteomics Application of computing to genetics bioinformatics Sections of DNA that code for proteins exons Sections of DNA that don't code for anything introns Repeating sequence of short DNA sequence (normally long gets repeated): `name`(`abbr`) name: short tandem repeat abbr: STR What percent of genetic material is used for proteins 2 Selection in which multiple alleles kept in population to maintain heterozygotes (e.g. bitter taste perception, sickle cell anemia) balancing selection How many chromosomes do bacteria have 1 What shape is the bacterial chromosome squiggly loop Small DNA molecules in bacteria that replicate separately and can exchange traits plasmids Shape of Eukaryotic DNA linear Region of the cell where bacterial DNA is nucleoid Complex of DNA and protein in eukaryotic cells chromatin Protein responsible for first level of DNA packing histones Second level of DNA packing nucleosomes Condensed chromatin: `condensed`, not condensed chromatin: `not condensed` condensed: heterochromatin not condensed: euchromatin One X one Y is what gender male Gene associated with gender sex-linked gene What is it called when homologous chromosomes do not separate normally in meiosis non-disjunction What does non-disjunction lead to in the gametes (in terms of n) n+1 n-1 Condition in which organism has more than two complete sets of chromosomes (n, 2, 3, 4) polyploidy triploidy tetraploidy diploidy Down syndrome is caused by `n` of chromosome 21, related to `factor` n: 3 factor: age of mother What is a karyogram all chromosomes in person In human how many chromosomes are there in regular cell (`2n` chromsomes) - `2n name`, how many unique chromosomes are there (there is one from each parent): `n` - `n name` 2n: 46 2n name: diploid n: 23 n name: haploid Transmission of traits from one generation to the next heredity Differences between offspring and parents variation Study of heredity and variation genetics Reproductive haploid cells gametes Chromosomes that are same but from different parents homologous chromosomes Union of gametes fertilization What is fertilized egg called zygote Process where haploid gametes made meiosis In Meisosis I, `I` separate, in Meisosis II `II` separates I: homologous chromosomes II: sister chromatids In `phase` of miosis, homologous chromosomes do `thing` where they switch up their genes phase: prophase I thing: crossing over What are formed when chromosomes cross over at the intersection points chiasmata Phase of meiosis where the crossed over chromosomes are pulled apart anaphase I Process in which chromosomes cross over synapsis What are crossed over homologous pairs called homologs Only difference between meisosis II and mitosis haploid instead of diploid In `process`, fluid is taken from `place` to make karyotype process: amniocentesis place: amniotic fluid What is it called when any non-disjunction events happen aneuploidy Chromosomes not related to sex autosomes Other place to get cells to make karyotype chorionic villi Place on chromosome where sister chromatids attach centromere Sources of variation sperm egg match synapsis independent assortment What are recombinant chromosomes chromosomes after synapsis What plants produce offspring with same phenotype when self-pollinating true-breeding In mendels experiments he mated contrasting true breeding varieties (`1` generation), leading to (`2` generation, with `2p` percent of dominant traits), leading to (`3` generation, with `3p` percent of dominant trait) 1: P 2: F1 2p: 100 3: F2 3p: 75 Law that different alleles end up in different gametes law of segregation What is this punnett square When organism has two dominant it is `1`, when organism has two recessive it is `2`, when organism has both it is `3` 1: homozygous dominant 2: homozygous recessive 3: heterozygous Appearance of organism (heterozygous & homozygous dominant are same) phenotype Actual genetics of organism (heterozygous & homozygous dominant are different) genotype When heterozygote and dominant homozygote are indistinguishable how is the dominance complete dominance When F1 is between P and F2 what is dominance incomplete dominance When the presence of alleles affect each other codominance Blood type alleles (write IB first then AP, like ) I_A A I_B B i O What are antigens against for blood other types Universal donor: `donor`, universal recipient: `recipient` donor: O recipient: AB Family tree that contains history for some traits pedigree If both parents have condition and offspring do not what is it dominant If neither parent has condition but some children do what is it recessive People who carry recessive disorder but dont have the phenotype carrier What type of allele is sickle cell codominant Genes on X chromosome x-linked genes What is it called when a male has one copy of X trait hemizygous X-linked recessive trait, causing it to be much more common in men color blindness hemophilia Fertilized egg is called zygote Gene thats not related to X/Y autosomal gene "A version of a gene" allele Example of dominant allele brown eyes Example of dominant genetic disease huntington's disease Problems with using humans for genetics unethical long generations few offspring Is it dominant or recessive dominant Is it dominant or recessive recessive What is circle in pedigree female How to calculate probability that 1 or more children have recessive disease when probability that all are normal is (3/4)^3 = 27/64 complement "The direction manipulation of genes for practical purposes" genetic engineering What are genes inserted into for cloning in DNA Cloning plasmids Resulting DNA from plasmid + gene of interest recombinant DNA What is plasmid carrying cloned DNA called cloning vector Places where plasmids get cut restriction sites Parts yielded by restriction enzyme restriction fragments What are these (on restriction fragments) sticky ends What enzyme seals the sticky ends together DNA Ligase How to separate restriction fragments gel electrophoresis What is used to obtain the genes of interest for introduction into plasmids PCR In CRISPR-Cas9 what does Cas9 do remove genes Design of genes to spread through population gene drive Reason for organismal cloning stem cells Cells that give rise to all the specialized cell types in an organism totipotent This thing + plant hormones allows growing plant in the lab callus cells Problem with GMOs crop-to-weed hybridization Plants that do cloning naturally strawberry garlic Modification on maize to make it produce insecticide Bt toxin Transgenic variety of rice to address vitamin A deficiency Golden Rice In cloning, what is nucleus from somatic cell put into egg cell without nucleus Feature of restriction sites (sticky end feature) palindrome What size of DNA moves the furthest in gel electrophoresis small In DNA profiling what is amplified for gel electrophoresis short tandem repeats What can DNA profiling be used for crime scenes You eliminate the alleles mom and child share and see who the father is (Father A). What band shows this 8 What type of disease is cystic fibrosis recessive autosomal Process in which bacteria exchange plasmids conjugation If thing being transferred is "F factor", what is `donor` cell and what is `recipient` cell donor: F+ recipient: F- What is process where one strand of DNA going through mating bridge while the missing part is getting re-replicated to have 2 strands rolling circle replication What does recipient cell become after conjugation is done recombinant Sign for donor where factor is part of main bacterial chromosome Hfr What is transferred to F- cell (including F factor) part of A+ What happens with linear DNA transferred to recipient, causing transfer of A+ synapsis Is recipient cell a donor cell when the F factor gets degraded no Result of transfer from F+ cell: `a`, result of transfer from Hfr cell: `b` a: recombinant F+ b: recombinant F- What do most of the 25 genes in F factor code for mating bridge