Structure for order of amino acids primary structure Structure for shape formed by hydrogen bonds between the carbonyl and the amino groups (e.g. beta sheets, alpha helix) secondary structure Structure for final shape of protein formed by variable R side chain tertiary structure Final structure of multiple proteins combine together quaternary structure Protein that contributes to structure like cytoskeleton, ECM, or spider silk structural protein Protein that performs a function functional protein Term usually used to refer to primary structure of protein peptide Bond between amino and carboxyl groups to create protein peptide bond Multiple amino acids bonded together to make polymers polypeptide Covalent bond that forms between two cysteine molecules disulfide bridge Number of amino acids 20 Location of protein synthesis ribosome Proteins that catalyze reactions enzymatic protein Proteins that help immune system detect and break apart pathogens by binding to antigen antibody Proteins used to store nutrients (e.g. egg white) storage protein Protein that signals to sell hormonal protein Protein that receives signals receptor protein Protein that moves contractile protein What is the entire set of proteins in a cell/tissue/organism called proteome Protein involved in absorbing carbon in photosynthesis rubisco Protein that regulates sugar intake insulin Glycoprotein that attaches to bacteria to identify pathogens by binding to antigens immunoglobin Protein that converts light into electrical signal for vision rhodopsin Structural protein found in skin, tendons, bones collagen What denatures proteins temperature ph Biological molecule that catalyzes one specific reaction without being used in the process enzyme The thing that binds with the enzyme substrate Part of the enzyme in which the substrate binds active site Result of chemical reaction with reactants in enzyme products Model in which shape of substrate matches shape of enzyme lock and key Model State in between products and reactants after Activation energy (E_a), unstable transition state Model in which enzyme clasps around the substrate when it binds due to changing bonds, stretching the molecule, bringing it into its transition state induced fit model Enzyme that breaks sucrose sucrase Enzyme that breaks proteins protease Enzyme that breaks lipids lipase Enzyme that builds DNA DNA polymerase Enzyme that can break down proteins in stomach pH pepsin Protein that breaks starch amylase Reactions that release energy are called exergonic Reactions that need energy are called endergonic Metals or other inorganic vitamins that facilitate movement of electrons not possible with side chains cofactors Thing that mimics substrate, slowing down Enzyme, but reversible by changing its concentration competitive inhibitor Thing that binds to the enzyme outside of active site to stabilize inactive shape, irreversibly making it slower or not work noncompetitive inhibitor Thing that can bind to enzyme to stabilize active shape activator molecule Thing where one activator can make all other subunits active, greatly increasing response cooperativity What factors create logarithmic graph where y axis is reaction rate substrate concentration enzyme concentration What factor creates normal distribution graph where y axis is reaction rate pH What factor creates left skew where y axis is reaction rate temperature Thing where enzymes are put into alginate beads or something else in high concentration (e.g. to make lactose free milk) immobilized enzymes What are organic cofactors called coenzymes Things that enzyme can change to catalyze orientation strain bonds environment What regulation is where noncompetitive inhibition is used allosteric regulation Regulation where result of a series of enzymes inhibits the first one, allowing a certain amount to be made feedback inhibition What is the process in which energy of excites an electron which leaves, water (electron donor) breaks into H+ and O2 photolysis What is chlorophyll pigment Spectrum that shows wavelengths of light in which energy absorbed: `name`, in chlorophyll this is `low`, `high` name: absorption Spectrum low: blue high: red Spectrum that shows wavelengths of light that increase reaction rate action spectrum Visible light: `left`nm to `right`nm left: 380 right: 750 Stack of membranes inside of cholroplast with chlorophyll embedded Thylakoid (Happends in Thylakoid): Sun excites electron in `place1`, it gets passed to `transport` and the missing electron is replaced with electrons from `chemical`, producing `useful` and `waste`. The excited electron is used to bring in `thing` before it is transferred to `place2`, where it absorbs energy and is passed off to make `useful2`, `enzyme` uses the high useful gradient to make ATP place1: Photosystem II transport: electron carrier chemical: water useful: H+ waste: O2 thing: H+ place2: Photosystem I useful2: NADPH enzyme: ATP Synthase Liquid inside of Chloroplast stroma (Happens in stroma): `name` cycle: Brings in `n...` and `a...` from Thylakoids, brings in `chemical`, first step: `step1` (CO2 incorporated into organic molecules), second step: `step2` (ATP and NADPH used to make 6 G3P), third step: `step3` (1 G3P comes out for sugars, 5 go into organic compounds that need CO2) name: Calvin n...: NADPH a...: ATP chemical: CO2 step1: Fixation step2: Reduction step3: Regeneration Sugar used for transport: `transport`, Sugar used for storage: `storage` transport: Sucrose storage: Starch Area of leaf where CO2 goes in and O2 comes out stomata Area of leaf where products transported vascular bundle Photosynthesis: `rC` CO2 + `rH` H20 + light -> `pG` C6H12O6 + `pO` O2 + `pH` H2O rC: 6 rH: 12 pG: 1 pO: 6 pH: 6 Main pigment for Photosynthesis chlorophyll A Accessor pigments (widen usable range of light) carotenoids chlorophyll B 3 parts of ATP ribose adenine triphosphate Glycolysis takes place in `place`, inputs `input` ATP, outputs `output` ATP, outputs `output compound` place: Cytoplasm input: 2 output: 4 output compound: pyruvate How many turns of Krebs cycle happen per glucose 2 How much ATP does Fermentation make (from glycolysis) 2 What is loss of electrons oxidation What is gain of electrons reduction Possible results of Fermentation lactate ethanol Which result of fermentation is reversible in the presence of oxygen lactate Main output of Krebs cycle NADPH Stages of cellular respiration: `1`, `2` - yields `2yield`, `3`, `4`, `other name of 4` 1: Glycolysis 2: Link 2yield: Acetyl CoA 3: Krebs cycle 4: Electron transport chain other name of 4: oxidative phosphorylation Electron transport chain takes `input` and releases lots of `output` input: NADPH output: ATP What is it called when ATP is used to perform activities substrate level phosphorylation `a` C6H12O6 + `b` O2 -> `c` CO2 + `d` H2O + `e` ATP a: 1 b: 6 c: 6 d: 6 e: 32 Three types of work of cell chemical mechanical transport `o` gets oxidized, `r` gets reduced o: fuel r: oxygen NADH-like thing produced by Krebs/Citric acid cycle FADH2 What does electron transport chain do pump H+ What is it called when H+ gradient used to do work chemiosmosis What type of phosphorylation happens during Glycolysis substrate-level Anaerobes that cannot survive in O2 obligate Anaerobes that can use cellular respiration of fermentation when no oxygen facultative Earliest method of using chemical energy (before mitochondria) glycolysis Rules that A=T and C=G chargaff's rules Person that takes x-ray diffraction pictures without proper citations from watson and crick, controversial rosalind franklin Pyrimidines cytosine thymine uracil Purines adenine guanine Which type of base has double ring purines Components of nucleotide nitrogenous base ribose phosphate group Bonds in DNA backbone covalent Bonds between bases (complementary base pairing means lengths equal) hydrogen Process in which DNA copied to DNA replication Process in which DNA converted to RNA transcription Process in which RNA converted to proteins translation People that discovered DNA shape Watson Crick (Correct) method of replication predicted by Watson and Crick, where each strand after replication has one parent strand and one new strand semiconservative Model of replication where one completely old strand and one completely new strand conservative model Model of replication where each strand is a mix of old and new dispersive model When DNA created in heavy nitrogen and then replicated in light nitrogen, what were layers after two generations (confirms semiconservative) medium light Where does replication begin (bubble goes both ways from here) origin of replication Ends of replication "bubble" called replication fork Enzyme that splits apart DNA helicase Protein that stops split strand of DNA from binding back to the other one single-strand binding Protein Protein that stops strain by untwisting topoisomerase Which side of ribose is 5' phosphate group Thing that starts strand of DNA RNA primer What enzyme makes RNA primer primase Enzyme that elongates the RNA primer with DNA DNA Polymerase Direction DNA goes into DNA Polymerase 3' to 5' Direction DNA is assembled 5' to 3' Since DNA can only go one way at origin of replication what is on other half of bubble Okazaki fragments Strand with Okazaki fragments lagging strand What are gaps in lagging strand joined with DNA ligase End of chromosomes that are necessary due to RNA primers telomeres Enzyme that makes telomeres longer in bacteria, gametes telomerase What does PCR stand for polymerase chain reaction First stage of PCR in which strands are separated with heat denaturation Second stage of PCR in which strands are cooled to allow primers to form on edges of target sequence annealing Third stage of PCR in which DNA polymerase adds nucleotides extension Polymerase used in DNA that greatly speeds it up due to its ability to handle the heat of annealing Taq polymerase Process that contains transcription and translation (genotype -> phenotype) gene expression Pairing rules in DNA: G with `1` and A with `2` and C with `3` and T with `4` 1: C 2: T 3: G 4: A Site of translation ribosomes Result of transcription messenger RNA DNA strand used for RNA template strand DNA strand used as backup coding strand Enzyme that does transcription RNA polymerase DNA sequence that RNA polymerase attaches to promoter DNA sequence that promotes transcription TATA Box End of RNA transcription polyadenylation sequence Reading frame of 3 bases called what codon Thing that attaches with amino acid and complements codons tRNA RNA in ribosomes rRNA Part of tRNA that pairs with codon anticodon Enzyme that attaches amino acid to tRNA aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase Site in ribosome that holds next amino acid A Site Site in ribosome that has chain of amino acids connecting P site Site in ribosome where tRNA comes out E site Order of sites in ribosome EPA WHich end of amino acid connects to tRNA carboxyl end Stage of translation that brings together a tRNA and first amino acid with small and large ribosomal subunits initiation Proteins that do initiation (help find start codon, bring first tRNA and ribosomal subunits, etc.) initiation factors Steps of `second stage of translation`: `1`, `2`, `3` second stage of translation: elongation 1: codon recognition 2: peptide bond formation 3: translocation Last stage of translation termination Molecule used for splitting the ribosome GTP Proteins destined for being exported have what, signalling ribosome to attach to Rough ER signal peptide Particle that binds to signal peptide SRP Complementary bases for RNA: A with `1` and T with `2` 1: U 2: A Start of an operon has `1`, then `2` 1: promoter 2: operator When trp is present, bacteria don't synthesize because it binds to operator segment because Trp is `thing`, and this is `kind` regulation thing: repressor kind: negative When CAP binds to promotor region of operon after cAMP rises due to lack of glucose, `thing` happens more, so this is `kind` regulator thing: RNA polymerase binding kind: activator When CAP is necessary to make lactose but lactose also removes a repressor, what kind of regulation is it induced regulation Islands in DNA that can be methylated to make it less neggatively charged so it doesn't stick to histones as much CpG What can be added to histones to make them stick to DNA less Acetyl What is necessary for transcription and can be regulated in eukaryotic cells transcription factors What is the number of ways to regulate gene proportional to length of promotor region When bound to the DNA with transcription factors what happens to RNA polymerase, allowing it to perform transcription phosphorylation Things that increase transcription: `increase`, things that reduce transcription: `reduce` increase: enhancer reduce: repressor Regions of rna that code for proteins exon Regions of rna that are spliced intron In what cycle does virus inject its DNA into bacterial chromosome and have it reproduce it lysogenic In what cycle does viral DNA leave bacterial chromosome and create more viruses lytic Virus is called `virus`, bacteria with viral DNA is called `bacteria` virus: phage bacteria: prophage